Located in the western Mediterranean, Sardinia has been since the dawn of civilization a docking assiduously frequented by those who sailed from one shore of the Mediterranean in search of raw materials and new outlets.

Rich in raw materials and water, its territory has always favored the population and the system of substantial settlements. So it was that the island throughout its history has been able to benefit both from their insularity that the strategic position, as an indispensable place in the network of ancient paths. In its historical and cultural heritage are abundant testimonies of indigenous cultures but also the influence and presence of the major former colonial powers.

According to a scholarly thesis debated Giovanni Lilliu, Sardinian history was at all times characterized by what he termed as constant resistential Sardinian,^[1] namely the millennial struggle led by the islanders against the new invaders: during periods in which were influenced by the major colonial powers, according to the known archaeologist, Sardinians and the fabric of the old traditions would be preserved through the centuries by people barbaricine that have been handed down to the present day.^[2]

The first traces of human presence (Homo erectus) Island date back to lower Paleolithic and consist of rudimentary selci splintery, found in Sassari in Perfugas, dating back to a period between the 500.000 e i 100.000 Years ago.

The first traces attributable Modern Man (Homo sapiens) date back to about 20.000 Years ago. The excavations made in Cave Corbeddu, At Oliena, returned hewn stones and human fossils. Al Mesolitico the finds are dated the Grotta Su colors of Laertius^[3] and the site of his Carroppu of secret^[4] while date back to the period of transition between Mesolitico e Neolithic, human skeletons discovered in the marina Arbus, in town on Pistoccu, renamed by archaeologists Beniamino e Amsicora.

There are numerous testimonies of Neolithic ancient. The ancient inhabitants of this age accounted ceramics with the edge of a shell, Cardium edulis, the A civiltà cardiac He developed by 6.000 A.C.. but the 4000 A.C.. circa.^[5]. It is divided by scholars into three phases:

• his Carroppu (6.000-4.700 A.C.);
• Green Cave (4.700-4.300 A.C.);
• Filiestru (4.300-4.000 A.C.).

The next civilization Voucher-Ighinu lasted until the 3500 A.C.. around and to it followed, with a brief interlude of San Ciriaco Culture (3400-3200 A.C.), civilization of San Michele di Ozieri, linked to the cultures of Aegean Islands, that lasted until 2700 A.C...

The Sardinians Neolithic lived both in outdoor villages in caves, raised livestock, cultivated cereals, knew the hunting, the fishing and weaving. They used tools selce and ossidiana of which the Island – thanks to the fields of Monte Arci – abounds, and whose trade began already in pre-Neolithic times.^[6] Carved stylized figurines depicting the Dea Madre accentuating the forms of otherwise and the kiss (depictions steatopigie). They were amassing also ceramics of different styles and decorated in various ways; They worked for the first time copper and l’silver^[7] and they built one of the most enigmatic constructions of prenuragico period, l’prehistoric altar of Monte d'Accoddi, which it will be renovated several times over the centuries to come^[8].

They developed in that period some forms of funerary architecture including tombs circle, especially in extras Gallure (but also with findings in other parts of the island and in the area Course–Pyrenees^[9]), consist of a pail lytic quadrangular, which it served as a tomb, surrounded by a circle formed by other orthostatic slabs of stone and reported by menhir (O Fitts losses)^[10], large stones embedded in the ground of which Sardinia is dotted; other types of megalithic burials were slightly higher Dolmen, widespread particularly in the center-north of the Island (among the most significant stands to It Coveccada At Mores) and common to much of’Western Europe e northern, but also to Near East^[8]. The other burial form that has characterized this time are the so-called domus de janas (houses of the fairies or witches), falls ipogeiche carved into the rock that reproduced the entire accommodation facility. The floor and walls of the tomb, but also the body of the deceased, They were coated with reddle.

In the final phase of the Neolithic period, this Chalcolithic, They followed one another's cultures Abealzu-Filigosa (2700-2400 A.C.), of Monte Claro (2400-2100 A.C.) and that of Bell Jar (2100-1800 A.C.)^[5], the latter considered external supply and probably imported by small joints ethnic groups, in various waves, from Continent (France, Spain, Central Europe)^[11]. The metallurgy of copper had a further development resulting in the spread of weapons (daggers), that appear now frequently even in burials and in the figurative with statue stele of the Sarcidano and other neighboring territories^[12]. The large megalithic walls in defense of the settlements, as in the case of Complesso di Monte last year, testify the reached insecurity that hovered between the Sardinian population in the first Metal Age^[3].

Nuraghic

The Nuraghic originated during cultural said Bonnanaro (1800-1600 A.C.. circa), related to the previous Beaker culture^[13], and second and the research was the result of the evolution of the existing megalithic cultures.

They spread the artifacts in bronze and daggers evolve in the first spade, like those in arsenical copper found in’Hypogeum of Sant'Iroxi in the territory of Decimoputzu^[14]. I dolmen a galleria (O covered driveway) prenuragico the period they become tombs of the giants, long also 30 meters, and the first are erected protonuraghi O corridor nuraghi that they know around 500 specimens^[15].

I nuraghi a tholos represent the evolution of protonuraghi and are initially of mono-type, but with the passage of time become more complex, up to take on the appearance of real holds with several towers around a central tower (eg Su Nuraxi of Barumini e colors of Orroli). More than 7000 nuraghi, on average one every 4 km² today still characterize the territory of Sardinia. They were the center of social life of the Sardinian communities and around them were developing the villages of round huts^[16].

According to the assumptions of the scholars, the island at that time was very populated: some hypotheses indicate that an average of 5000 simple nuraghi 3000 between complex nuraghi and villages, with an average of 10 inhabitants for each isolated tower and 100 inhabitants for each village, you could count a population of about 245.000 unit (Sardinia again reach a similar population density only fifteenth century)^[17]; Other hypotheses suggest a greater number, between 400.000 e i 600.000 inhabitants^[18].

The Nuragici were the inhabitants of Sardinia for over a millennium. They were a people of warriors, shepherds and farmers, divided into small tribal nuclei (clan). Thanks to new archaeological finds is becoming more certain the hypothesis that they were proficient in the art of navigation that allowed him to travel around the Mediterranean basin, maintaining contacts with the populations micenee, cretesi, Cyprus, Etruscan e Iberian. Ceramics nuragiche dating back to a period between the Middle Bronze Age and the final bronze were discovered in fact’Ellade, a Creta, Cipro and Sicily^[19], while the first Iron Age can be ascribed the ceramics found along the Iberian coast^[20] and the Tyrrhenian. These ceramics for the most part were not produced for export and trade, but they were mostly common vessels, amphoras, olle nuragici used by sailors as a ceramic board, while pitchers askoidi, considered among the finest nuragici containers, thin neck and globular body, finely decorated and found in Etruscan tombs, according to scholars, contained came Sardinian traded with the Etruscans that in IX – Eighth century B.C.. not cultivated quick.^[21] At the same time Glass beads, pottery, ivory e copper ingots in ox-hide reach the island by Eastern Mediterranean^[19].

I holy wells and the so-called tempietti and megaron They are the most important religious structures of this civilization^[22]. In this regard the sacred wells, dedicated to the worship of water, according to recent research scholar of Arnold Lebeuf, the sacred well of santa Cristina, in particular, It turned out to be an elaborate astronomical observatory much to suggest that the Nuragic peoples possessed very advanced knowledge to an age so far. Only a thorough understanding of the complicated lunar theories could make possible, according to the scholar, the design and construction of the observatory whose project was planned step by step before digging on the rock^[23].

Let them counted among the most important artistic productions nuragiche large statues arenaria of Giants of Monte Prama, even more than two meters high, depicting archery, boxers and warriors, e i bronzes, bronze statues realized with the technique of Persian wax typical of that period, with representations of actors sometimes realistic, sometimes imaginary^[24].

With the arrival of Sardinia Carthaginians first and Romans then, the Nuragici retreated into the inner regions of the island opposing a resistance to the invaders fair.

ancient Period

Sardinia Phoenician and Carthaginian

I Phoenicians They arrived in Sardinia between X and l’Eighth century B.C.., period in which the Nuragic Civilization was in its heyday. Once as merchants (and not as invaders) were integrated in the coastal villages nuragici, bringing new technologies in Sardinia, new lifestyles and giving impetus to businesses. Their presence was found in the main landing points, generally in small penisole or islands, along the southwestern arc, west-central and south-eastern island, in settlements Nora, shut the, Monte Sirai, Bithia, Tharros, Othoca, King, Bosa, Sarcapos and other minor, which were also the most important urban centers Carthaginian and Roman era[25][26].

I Carthaginians They became interested in the Island from Sixth century B.C.. with the intention to submit it and include it in their domains, as well as the newly-conquered Sicily western^[27]. A first attempt of conquest led by Malco was foiled by victorious resistance nuragica (and probably by the city-state Sardinian-Phoenician) around 540 A.C..^[27].

However, as of the end of 510 A.C.. circa, the south central part of the Island, following a second expedition Punic, He fell under the Carthaginian.^[27][28]. The Carthaginians expanded the existing coastal cities, perhaps making the provincial capital of Tharros, and they built the new (among which Olbia, Cornus e Naples^[29][30]), They forbade the cultivation of fruit trees in favor of one cerealicoltura.^[31]

Among the most significant testimonies of the Phoenician-Punic necropolis it is to be quoted on the hill Tuvixeddu Cagliari, in ancient King, considered the most extended necropolis Phoenician existing in Mediterraneo, while shut the (today Sant'Antioco) is the tophet largest ever found so far.^[32]

Roman Sardinia

For a long time the Roman domination was marked by the difficult cohabitation with Nuragici. It gradually reached some integration, even if they were constant uprisings, in particular those of Bala and THE TROJANS^[34]. The major centers are quickly and romanised King It became the capital of the new province. The city grew and was enriched with monuments, among which the most notable example is probably the’amphitheater, that up to 2011 it was still a place for shows.^[35]The Romans got in Sardinia 238 A.C.. at the end of First Punic War. In 215 A.C.., while Annibale invadeva the Italian peninsula, Sardinian-Punic leader Amsicora, an ex latifondista of Cornus, ally with the peoples Interior nuragici, He led the anti-Roman resistance, but he was defeated in a pitched battle took place in campidano Cagliari^[33].

In the north of the island, the Romans founded the port of Turris Libisonis, today Porto Torres, They made a Carthaginian town Olbia an important center with squares, aqueducts and thermal complexes. In 1999, in the waters of the old port they were recovered 18 wrecks of Roman ships, two of which are probably the age of Nerone, testimony of the importance of the port of call in the city. Even today urban areas located in these locations, or Cagliari, Sassari e Olbia, It is the main town of the island. also they endowed the island of a road network used primarily for communicating the southern part of the centers with the north. In the middle of one of these roads, they founded Forum Traiani (at the current Fordongianus), which it became the main military center island and in The Century d.C. It was equipped with a thermal complex. They developed the cultivation of cereals and Sardinia became part of the provinces granaio, together with Sicily e all’Egypt.

Probably, the most important cultural heritage of the Roman period is the Sardinian language, strain neolatino, It composed of numerous dialects grouped into the variety of logudorese and the campidanese.^[36]

medieval Period

Sardinia Vandal and Byzantine

After fall of the Western Roman Empire, Sardinia was occupied by Vandals, who maintained a military garrison on the island for seventy-seven years (during which two Sardinian ascended to the papacy, papa Ilario e papa Simmaco), until the takeover of Byzantines in 534. The Byzantine rule, interspersed with a brief occupation Ostrogoths, allowed important social and cultural transformations.

In this period, papa Gregorio I He carried on the work of evangelization Barbagia where they still worship the ancient gods nuragiche. The Barbaricini remained always very reluctant towards the newcomers so that a very important number of soldiers limitanei They were deployed along the limes, the ancient frontier that divided the Romania from Barb^[37]. According to historians, there was from the imperial recognition of a Sardinia barbaricina wild and free and – according to the historian of the Sardinian Middle Ages Francesco Cesare Casula – somehow also conformed statualmente, perhaps independent duchy or even in the realm, where it continued to exist a culture of origin nuragica. According to historian, even the Romània was still quite peacefully acquired.^[37]

Despite all, the link between the island and Bisanzio He grew stronger over time and Sardinia remained Byzantine during the invasion of the Italian peninsula by Longobardi. The Byzantine influence was felt in a particular way in the religious sphere. The Sardinian Church depended Patriarchate of Constantinople that practicing greek rite, other than Latin for certain liturgical forms. This rite was introduced in religious ceremonies, along with traditions and festivals traces of which remain to this day as the emperor-saint worship Constantine I, that became the Sardinians Santu Antine, in whose honor in Sedilo it's at Pozzomaggiore is held still the ride said s’burned. The presence of the monks cenobiti greek-Byzantine, followers of the Rule San Basilio, It extended up inside, over the limes, introducing new customs and spreading the use of hymns, the custom in the countryside of burying the dead next to churches, the custom of baptizing children with Byzantine names, and the worship of many of the saints menologio Oriental.

Judical Sardinia

With the decline of the Byzantium, starting from’ninth century^[38], on the system of the Byzantine organizational Sardi gave themselves a new political order. The island was now divided into four judged independent from both outside and between them. I judged They were to Torres-Logudoro, of lower, of Gallura and of Arborea and they were governed by a judge (Judi O zuighe in Sardinian, judge in latino), with sovereign power. They administered a territory, named window, Divided into curatorie formed by several villages, governed by leaders called the. Part of the land use, as well as agriculture, It was managed collectively, organization very modern for its time.

L’aid led to Sardinia against Arab by fleets Genoa e Pisa, especially after the failed attempt to conquer the island in 1015–16 from Mujahid al-Amiri Denia (the Mugetto or Musetto of the Italic Christian chronicles), lord of Balearic after the collapse of Califfato omayyade of Al Andalus – had as a consequence an increasing influence of the two Maritime Republics in the island's politics.

At the turn of XIII century only judge her realm of Arborea had maintained its independence and sovereignty as a result of wars, weddings and political overturning much of the territory of the Calari judged and judged of Gallura ended up being incorporated in the possessions of Republic of Pisa; the judged of Torres instead ended, especially after the Battle of Meloria, under the influence of Republic of Genoa and families of the Genoese Doria and Malaspina.

In 1395 the giudicessa-regent Eleanor emanated Carta de Window, symbol and synthesis of a conception of the state essentially Sardinian, with Roman-Byzantine contributions and particularly innovative in those days in Europe, as testimony to a Judicial civilization that was great for the modern understanding of the law and of the person.^[39] The paper included a civilian and a rural code, totaling 198 chapters, and it marked a key step towards equality rights. This set of laws remained in force until 1827.

Sardinia stately and municipal

In chronological age giudicale is necessary to mention apart from the events of the Sardinian city that gave its statutes, Following on the experience of common Italian. In particular, two, the one of Sassari and that of Villa Church, appear relevant to the historical importance, institutional and economic centers of the two.

Municipal Of Experience Sassari (1272 circa – 1323) remain the Statutes of the city, drafted in latino and sardo logudorese. Of affair Villa Church (1258 circa – 1323), founded by Ugolino della Gherardesca and voted the mining argentiera, It remains testimony on city laws gathered in Short of Villa di Chiesa (of which in the historical archives of the city it houses one in parchment, presumably dating to 1327).

In general, autonomies and privileges of Sardinian citizens (although it was common pazionati, ie whose mayor was from a hegemonic city, in this first Pisa and then Genoa, also to avoid internal struggles) It will track later in the history of the Kingdom of Sardinia, when the city emerged from the previous period (the two mentioned above, we must add: Castel lower, Oristano, Bosa, Alghero, Castelaragonese), It will be recognized special legal status that will make the royal towns, that is reclaimed from the feudal rule and employees directly from the Crown, with their specific representatives in the parliament of Stamenti.

The Kingdom of Aragon Sardinia

The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica He began nominally in 1297, When papa Bonifacio VIII He instituted it to settle dispute between Angioini e Aragonesi about Kingdom of Sicily (which he had triggered the popular uprising then passed into history as Sicilian Vespers). Through various phases, the history of the Sardinian Kingdom runs through the last period of Middle Ages under the Crown of Aragon, and of Spain then, going after War of Spanish Succession, the Treaty of Utrecht, to London, and Hague, a Savoy dynasty in 1720, and then come to an end between the 1847 (Perfect Union with the states of the mainland) and the 1861, with the proclamation of Kingdom of Italy, his heir.

The Aragonese hesitated a long time before you invade and conquer the island and the kingdom was territorially made only from 1324 when’infante Alfonso He defeated the Pisani in battle of lucocisterna, incamerandone the territories that belonged to Republic of Pisa. What followed was a long and bloody war lasting seventy years fought against Kingdom of Arborea, initially ally in anti-Pisan function, whose courts never gave up the dream of uniting the island under their flag succeeding under the guidance of Mariano IV of Arborea first and Brancaleone Doria, husband of Eleanor, then to confine the Aragonese city of the sun Cagliari e Alghero. After the defeat against the armies of Martin junior in Battle of Sanluri the 30 June 1409, the Arborensi defended their historic territories, but after other bloody battles, their capital Oristano He surrendered in March 1410. Ten years later, in 1420 what remained of the last Sardinian judged was sold for 100.000 guilders d’oro ad Alfonso V d’Aragona the Magnanimous gives William III of Narbonne, He arborense ultimate judge of history.

The high human and material costs of the war went great harm to the economy and social situation of the island while the Crown of Aragon It became a short time after part of’Spanish Empire, Both troubled processes, from them according to some scholars perceive as strangers or distant from populations.^[40]

The period from the beginning of fourteenth century about half of the next century was to Western civilization a transition period Middle Ages all’modern age. The company broke away from the myths and medieval traditions going towards the Renaissance. These changes are not detectable among Sardinia; this period – that began in 1323/1324 – It parallels the Aragonese occupation and is considered by many scholars as the worst of all the island's history. The path to the modern age was abruptly interrupted and the whole island society regressed into a new and dark Middle Ages. The major causes were seen in the continuous wars against Kingdom of Arborea and privileged regime, of harassment and monopoly exclusive of all power, established in his favor by Catalan–aragonesi and then by Spanish.

A clear testimony of the current situation is provided by the Catalans that even in 1481 and 1511 They asked the King – in their Parliament – the confirmation of the ancient privileges block, remembering that had been granted 'appretada and having subjected the nation Sardinian» (keep needy and subdued the Sardinian nation)^[41]. With the despotism and confiscation of all wealth is abruptly halted the economic renewal process, cultural and social that judged e Maritime Republics, They had raised between ninth century and the fourteenth century.

Late in the Aragonese period Leonardo Alagon, heir of the judges of Arborea, to defend his succession to Marquis of Oristano He unleashed a noble war of succession, finally revolting against the Aragonese government. His story began around 1477, when he came into conflict with the viceroy Nicolò Carros. The latter set things up so John II of Aragon the faithless Leonardo de Alagon condemned for treason and felony. These so gave way to a real revolt against the Kingdom of Sardinia which first saw the subjects of the Kingdom suffer defeat in Battle of Uras but then the uprising ended with the defeat of the rebels in Battle of Macomer, the death of his son Artale, the escape of the same Alagón and later his capture. He died on 3 November 1494 in the Valencian jail Xativa.

Modern Era and the Kingdom of Sardinia

The Spanish Sardinia

With the recapture of Granada, occurred on 2 January 1492, fully he realized the unification of the Iberian kingdoms, assiduously pursued by Ferdinand II of Aragon and from Isabella of Castile.

After their wedding in Valladolid the 17 October 1469 an agreement Also Known as concordia Segovia, in 1475, the two sovereigns took an oath not to merge the two crowns in one State and each entity retained its institutions and its laws. Both of which were called: King of Castile, of Aragona, of Lion, of Sicily, Sardinia, of Cordova, of Murcia, of Jahen, of Algarve, of Algeciras of Gibraltar, of Naples, Counts of Barcelona, lords of Vizcaya and of Molina, Dukes of Athens and of Neopatria, Roussillon accounts and of raid, Marquis of Oristano and accounts Goceano.

In 1527, during Franco-Spanish War, a French expeditionary force of 4000 guided by the Italian men Renzo da Ceri Ursino He attacked the north of the Island, harassing Castellaragonese and saccheggiando Sorso and then Sassari for almost a month^[42].

After the victorious Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and after the temporary outlet Tunis in 1573, from 1577, the important basis Barbary was recaptured by the Muslims; the Crown of Spain thus he lost the most eastern African outpost and was forced to retreat to defensive frontier. The Kingdom of Sardinia – which until then he had had a secondary role in the Mediterranean defensive chessboard – from then on it he became an outpost against’Ottoman expansion: the island passed the invisible border that was the border between Christians and Muslim countries. It then poses, urgently the problem of strengthening coastal defenses and the three most important strongholds maritime: Cagliari (the capital of the Kingdom^[43]), the city of Alghero the A Castellaragonese of rock, which they formed the backbone of the defense system neuralgic.

In addition to the numerous incursions of Barbary pirates, in 1637, during the Thirty Years' War, Sardinia also had to cope with a further attempt at French invasion^[44]. In February of that year a fleet of 47 navi, conducted by Henri de Lorraine, tale of’Harcourt, invades and plunders Oristano for about a week, but fearing the return of the Sardinian militia the French general decided to retire, leaving on the field four banners that still stand out today on the counter of Cathedral^[44].

Sardinia Savoy

In August 1708, in full War of Spanish Succession, a Shipping Anglo-Dutch sent by Carlo d’Austria He besieged Cagliari and put an end, after nearly four centuries, the Iberian domination Island.

At territorial adjustments that followed the conflict, ended in 1713, for a short period, between 1713 and the 1718, the kingdom of Sardinia passed, as determined by Treaty of Utrecht (that sanctioned the separation of Spain its European possessions), to Austrian Habsburgs. In 1717, Philip V of Spain He reoccupied for some time Sardinia and Sicily giving actually beginning to War of the Quadruple Alliance. The Hague Treaty 1720 permanently assigned to the Kingdom of Sardinia Duke of Savoy, Vittorio Amedeo II.

Despite attempts to modernize the Island, at first the economic situation of the population did not improve, also because of the presence feudal (Savoy pledged to maintain the old feudal privileges). But there was an effort, especially at the time when the count Giambattista Bogino He held the Ministry for Affairs of Sardinia. Conservative by the enlightened spirit, he had to Sardinia for the establishment of granatici Monti, the reform of the Universities of Cagliari and Sassari, in the wake of reformism Regalist typical of traditional Piedmontese (by Vittorio Amedeo II's son Carlo Emanuele III), some important reforms in the field of jurisdictionalism, including the attempt to contain the proliferation of regular monks and clergy in general. they, indeed, They enjoyed many privileges, including exemption from secular courts (and even by priests and Roman ones in the case of regular friars, so the judicial conflict was extended within the same ecclesiastical universe) and exemption from the payment of tithes, that caused no secondary damage to the state coffers^[45].

The uprising of antipiemontese 1794

Because of the severe economic situation, a widespread general discontent led to the outbreak of rebellions and riots that shook the whole of Sardinia. In 1789 numerous villages refused to pay the feudal taxes, causing a new repressive intervention. The protest movement won the support of intellectuals and men of culture, especially after 1789, also for the effect of the ideas propagated by French Revolution.

In 1793 a French fleet under Admiral orders Truguet occupied Carloforte e Sant'Antioco, He landed in the territory of Quartu and he attacked Cagliari port. The city was defended by Sardinian volunteers repelled the invading troops. The French also attacked in the north of the island where a team commanded by the then lieutenant Napoleon Bonaparte, He tried to seize Maddalena and of Palau to occupy the northern Sardinia. The heroic resistance of the La Maddalena led by Domenico Millelire He foiled the attack. These episodes of resistance to French, just as the Piedmontese troops encountered serious difficulties on the mainland, They created the illusion that the Savoy government could grant the Sardinian ruling classes a more independent management of Sardinia. They were sent to the delegates Torino to advance to Vittorio Amedeo III the precise demands, summarized in the so-called five questions. These consisted in convening the Stamenti, never summoned by the arrival of the Piedmontese; the reaffirmation of the ancient privileges of which had always enjoyed the Sardinian people; the appointment in the civil and military positions and exclusively Sardinian ecclesiastical offices; the institution to Torino a Ministry for Sardinia and Cagliari a Council of State for judicial reviews. The delegates were held in Turin for months, without getting answers, while in Sardinia he grew the tension.

The refusal of the royal demands of six representatives of Stamenti Sardi,^[46] caused the 28 April 1794 a rebellion. He was captured the Viceroy and all the officers were taken on board and sent back to the mainland. The rebellion was followed in other cities and island countries, come Oristano, Bosa, Mailing Lists e Bauladu.^[47]

The date is commemorated today as The die Sardinia^[47].

I moti antifeudali angioiani

It emerged in these circumstances of revolt personality Giovanni Maria Angioy, Judge of the Royal Audience, already he distinguished himself in the action of the French defense from attack 1793. The viceroy Filippo Vivalda, concerned about the degeneracy of the protest, sent Giovanni Maria Angioy Sassari with powers alternòs (with the same powers of the viceroy)^[47]. Angioy tried for three months to reconcile lords and vassals, but when he realized the decreased interest and decreased government support and Cagliari, He worked with French emissaries to a plan to establish a Republic Sarda^[48], while Napoleone Bonaparte invaded the Italian peninsula.^[49]

However with the’Armistice of Cherasco and the subsequent Paris Peace of the 1796 It broke down every possible external support. He decided to make an anti-feudal march on Cagliari^[49]. At this point, the viceroy of the powers were revoked alternòs and he had to stop his march to Oristano June 8, after being abandoned by his supporters and after that the King had accepted the same day the aforementioned five demands of Stamenti Sardi.^[49]; later he had to leave Sardinia and took refuge in Paris, where he sought approval to militarily invade the island and put it under the protection of France. On the island the order was restored with weapons. They were besieged and stormed the villages who resisted and were sentenced to death all the leaders and leading experts in the revolutionary movement that was able to capture^[50].

The Savoy moved to Cagliari

In 1799 French troops occupied the Piedmont forcing Savoia repair in Sardinia where they remained until 1814, When Napoleon Bonaparte He was defeated and exiled in’Elba island^[51]. several officials, burghers and peasants continued even after the 1796 and defeat dell'Angioy to pursue plans of revolt: island occurred several attempts at insurrection, including those of Vincenzo Sulis, Gerolamo Podda, Francesco Cilocco, the pastor of Terralba Francesco Corda, and other revolutionary and Jacobin inspiration that tried to proclaim a Republic Sarda, but as rebels were killed in firefight or sentenced to death.

The Sovereign's presence on the island did not weaken the general discontent which resulted in 1812, During a year of famine, in an attempt at insurrection known as Conspiracy of Palabanda, guided Advocate Salvatore Cabras, that was slashed with hardness and ended with the executions of John Putzolu, Raimondo and Sorgia same Cabras.

The Savoy began a land management policy and resource exploitation, for example, with the deforestation for the production of carbone, creation of pastures and timber for sleepers. To stimulate agricultural production in other parts of Europe, in 1820 Vittorio Emanuele I enacted l’Edict of chiudende, with which authorized the closure, with hedges or walls, of the commons. It then allowed, often to the benefit of landowners, the creation of private property by clearing the collective ownership of land, typical island.

Sardinia contemporary

In 1847 was enshrined the A perfect fusion Sardinia with all the possessions of House of Savoy, producing effect as the extension of the island also Albertine Statute. The act, required by classes of Cagliari and Sassari executives to get equal rights, He involved the surrender of the last vestiges of-state acquired in the Iberian period (carica vicereale, of parliament Stamenti, Supreme Court of the Royal Audience), and the administrative and political union with the Member of the Mainland. The unitary state then evolve, fourteen years after the 1861, in Kingdom of Italy, considered an ideal and legal prosecution of the Kingdom of Sardinia, whose official anthem will stay (together with the Royal March) S'hymnu folk costume.

Following the sale of hometown Nice a France, Giuseppe Garibaldi He moved the island of Caprera (having acquired the northern half before, the then Southern), where he died in 1882 after having spent the last twenty years of his life, and whose White House It is now a museum of the most popular and visited throughout Italy.

The Sardinian Question

The horse in Sardinia eight hundred e Twentieth century It is not an economically strategic region of Italy united, reflecting the general problems of Noon and the development priorities of industrial triangle. The populations of different units of language and culture in an Italy recently reunited and intolerant to any kind of political and administrative decentralization, He made difficult the realization of a genuine national unity, instead causing marked differences in economic and cultural development between the North and the South.^[52]

On the island the large landowners formed the ruling class which for the opportunity to exercise power at the local level – appropriating this way of communal lands – He renounced to play an active and independent role within the new unitary state.^[53]

While among the masses of the cities and large towns grew discontent to a State whose presence is mainly manifested through oppressive tax collectors, Law Enforcement and the obligation of military service, in riots they broke out inside the territories to which then accompanied the phenomenon of banditry, restrained in 1899 with a real military expedition.^[53]

Surveys conducted in 1885 by MPs Francesco Salaris and 1895 gives Francesco Pais Serra They testified the serious social and economic problems in which lived the Sardinians. The weak modernization and trade conflicts with other European countries, species with France, They put the productive and social structure knees island. Under the pressure of the new socialist ideas, the working people organized themselves into unions alloys giving birth to the first strikes. The 4 September 1904 a Buggerru, a mining center of’Iglesiente, the army fired miners who went on strike demanding better working conditions: three workers were killed, while the wounded were eleven.^[54]

The vanguards of the island culture and the working masses were opposed to governments Giolitti and Giolittism represented on the island by the Minister Francesco Cocco Ortu accusing him of a power management clientelistica. All the time with ideas already living in the previous century, They were valued history and culture of the island, mythologized and exalting the ancient Nuraghic e the Judicial, periods into which Sardinia was free and independent view.^[55] Along with the denunciation of the evils that plagued Sardinia, the new cultural vitality that was establishing its age Giolitti, He rediscovered and told the Sardinians by artists and writers such as Sebastiano Satta, Francesco Ciusa, Grazia Deledda, not forgetting the well highlight the profound links between the island's underdevelopment and the rising continental capitalism. The same Antonio Gramsci, a student who lived intensely in Cagliari that period, in front of the suffering of workers and the brutal repression that followed the riots, He recalled in a letter of his conviction to fight at that time for national independence in the region.^[55]

In this ferment of ideas that shook the whole of Sardinia, the young Socialist Nuoro Attilio Deffenu, It gave rise to a large movement anti-protectionist with the intention of bringing together in a single deployment of the most advanced forces both socialist and radical and Catholic. claimed the anti-protectionist actions not only to bring out the island from underdevelopment, but also a solution to the Sardinian question indicating the direction for a new relationship between Sardinia and the central government. In April 1913, with Nicolò Fancello He founded an Action Group for the interests of Sardinia which took part in the best islanders intellectuals. In the manifesto which was published on that occasion it was argued that the abolition of protectionism is an indispensable condition for the economic elevation of Sardinia. While the movement was trying to carry on the charge of renewal, Italy was involved and overwhelmed by war.^[56]

The Great War and the Sardinian Action Party

During the great war that saw oppose the central Powers and Entente Powers, 100.000 Sardinians on a population of 853.000, they were enrolled in 151º and 152º Infantry regiment Sassari, made on a regional basis: of them 13.602 they died, or were injured, fighting as elite units in the hottest point of the war front.^[57]

The Sardinians who fought in the trenches found themselves united as a long time did not happen more in their history. Fighting side by side matured bloody battles, according to some authors, in the trench solidarity collective experience invaluable.^[58] In terms of blood, their contribution to the Italian victory was well above the national average: They built out of every thousand hundred thirty and eight of them died compared with a national average of one hundred and four.^[59]

At the end of the conflict ex-combatants gave rise to broad discussions and initiatives, advancing proposals of autonomy to resolve the serious evils that plagued the otherwise Island.^[60]

This led to new political turmoil that with Emilio Lussu They led to the birth 17 April 1921 of the Sardinian Action Party, the symbol of Quattro Mori and with the common idea of ​​the veterans to get the island's autonomy.^[61]

During Fascism

Since its birth the fascism he understood that democracy was developing with self-government and the administration of themselves, This is why local self-government were immediately repressed.^[62] Also suppressed political freedoms, in 1926 It was dissolved the Sardinian Action Party and the same Lussier was arrested and sent to internment in Aeolian Islands, off the Sicily^[63].

With the so-called “Law Billion” of the 1924, which allocated one billion read for the development of Sardinia, They were made a series of infrastructure and public works (roads, hospitals, railways, ports etc.)^[63]; They were subsequently initiated several major reclamation works swamps (in particular in the Nurra and in the plain of Terralba)^[64] and it was promoted politics of’autarchia through the increase of mining activities. Then came founded some cities such as mining of Carbonia and agricultural of Arborea (at the time called Mussolinia) and of Fertilia, also populated by over Tirreno, especially from Venetian, Friulian, Dalmatian e Istrian.

During the second World War the island served as a “aircraft carriers in the Mediterranean“, Italy being devoid of such vessels, and it suffered heavy bombardment by Allies^[65]. After the’8 September 1943 German soldiers were evacuated by Corsica and that there was resistance from the Italian troops of General Antonio Basso, and Sardinia with the rest of noon He became part of United South^[66], remaining under the control of’US army until the end of hostilities.

The post-war period and the special statute

With the conclusion of the second World War, together with Republican Constitution, it is promulgated Special Statute of Autonomy, the second after the Sicily and now it extended to a total of five regions. The postwar period, characterized dall'eradicazione of malaria (thanks to Rockefeller Foundation) and demands and economic demands, He sees the emergence of policy Revival Plans, Special legislative measures for the financing of industrialization in Sardinia (a Porto Torres, Ottana, Portovesme e Sarroch), along with infrastructure and housing policies, but also the installation of several military servitude for a total of thousands of hectares occupied in part related to the events of cold War and the alliance with NATO^[67].

Despite the island clothing 2,5% of the Italian population, the 60% of NATO military servants and Italian is still localized in Sardinia, comprising over 35.000 hectares used to the use of experimental weapons^[68][69] where it is blown up 80% of the bombs for military use in Italy^[70].

They persist also several wounds, such as fire, the Drought (now much diminished), i kidnappings, who were able to just disappear in the nineties, and a wide range of attacks, often claimed by groups belonging to the far left and radical all'indipendentismo^[71][72]: only in two years 1987-1988, They had been recorded two hundred and twenty bombings^[73].

Col Italian economic miracle there is a historic migratory movement from the inside to the coast and urban areas Cagliari, Sassari–Alghero–Porto Torres e Olbia, Today that they collect much of the Sardinian population. It grows and it says tourism sector, up to make the island one of the most popular destinations for Italian and international level, in particular thanks to the Costa Smeralda. There remain also always live the cultural ferments and traditions, like the birth of artistic and literary talents and political figures at the highest levels, including Antonio Segni, Enrico Berlinguer e Francesco Cossiga.

Several data show that Sardinia is the most polluted area to now recover the territories of the Italian state, especially because of the failed industrialization plans^[74][75].

At the end of XX century Sardinia is economically stood halfway between center e Southern Italy, with a average per capita income similar to that of’Abruzzo, slightly less than the European average. Other indicators will awarded on both economic progress, both social, but do not eliminate the difficulty of growth and organic development still present. In recent years, the new information technologies and improved transportation, especially those planes with low cost airlines, They have mitigated the condition of insularity and helped to innovate and diversify the local economy.